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Title: Elementary woodworking

Author: Edwin W. Foster

Release date: January 6, 2023 [eBook #69725]
                Most recently updated: October 19, 2024

Language: English

Original publication: United States: Ginn & Company

Credits: Peter Becker and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at https://www.pgdp.net (This file was produced from images generously made available by The Internet Archive)


*** START OF THE PROJECT GUTENBERG EBOOK ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING ***

[Illustration: “Grizzly Giant,” a Big Tree in Mariposa Grove, California]




                          ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING

                                    BY
                             EDWIN W. FOSTER

                              GINN & COMPANY
                   BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON

                             COPYRIGHT, 1903
                            BY EDWIN W. FOSTER

                           ALL RIGHTS RESERVED

                                   25.1

                            The Athenæum Press
                        GINN & COMPANY · CAMBRIDGE
                             · MASSACHUSETTS




PREFACE


This text has been prepared for the purpose of furnishing the pupil with
the essential facts about tools and their uses. However efficient the
instruction may be and however attentive the pupil, it is impossible for
him to fully grasp and comprehend during a demonstration the names of
tools and technical terms, most of which are new to him. This applies
with equal force to the manner of using the tools and to the methods of
working.

The function of the text is to supplement the instruction of the teacher.
It is intended to gather up and arrange in a logical order the facts
which the pupil has already been told. By this means these facts will
become fixed in the mind of the pupil and he will work with a better
understanding and make greater progress.

It is believed that the text can be used to the greatest advantage
by requiring the pupil to read up the subjects presented in class
immediately _after_ the close of the lesson. Frequent rapid reviews and
occasional written tests are very effective.

No course of study in the form of a series of models is presented. It is
hardly possible for any two schools to follow the same series of models.
Local conditions necessarily affect the choice of a course, while new and
better designs are being brought out continuously.

The order in which the tools are described in the following pages is the
one that has seemed most natural. They may be taken up, however, in any
convenient and logical order.

It is with the earnest hope that nature study and manual work may be
closely correlated, that Part II is added. No better period can be
selected in which to study trees, their leaves, bark, wood, etc., than
when the student is working with wood, learning by experience its grain,
hardness, color, and value in the arts.

Occasional talks on the broader topics of forestry, its economic aspects,
climatic effects, influence on rainfall, the flow of rivers, floods,
droughts, etc., will be found interesting as well as instructive, and
such interest should be instilled into every American boy and girl.

The writer is indebted to the Fish, Forest, and Game Commission of New
York state for the series of Adirondack lumbering scenes, and to the
United States Bureau of Forestry for the views of California Big Trees.

                                                          EDWIN W. FOSTER.




CONTENTS


                                                                      PAGE

                              PART I. TOOLS

    Chapter I. Introduction                                              3

      General directions regarding care of tools and bench. Plan of
      work and division of tools into groups.

    Chapter II. Measuring and Marking Tools                              5

      The rule: divisions; method of using. The try-square: method
      of handling. The framing square. The marking gauge. The bevel.

    Chapter III. Cutting Tools                                          11

      Saws: necessity for two classes; shape of teeth; set; tapers;
      method of holding. Backsaw; use of bench hook. The turning
      saw. The plane: use of cap iron; names of parts. Adjustment
      of plane. Use of lever and adjusting screw; positions for
      planing. The jack plane. The smooth plane. Jointers; action
      of short and long planes. The block plane. The wooden plane.
      The chisel: size of cutting angle; effect of careless
      sharpening. The framing and firmer chisels; proper positions
      for horizontal and vertical cutting. Sharpening on oilstone.
      Brace and bit. Center and auger bits; gimlet and countersink
      bits. The spokeshave.

    Chapter IV. Miscellaneous Tools and Methods of Work                 31

      The hammer; use of nail punch. The mallet. The screw-driver.
      Sandpaper, use of. Squaring up stock; method explained in
      detail. Laying out work; method of laying out a typical
      joint. Securing parts; use of glue and hand screws. Nails;
      method of using cut nails. Screws; method of using round-head
      and flat-head screws. Mechanical drawing. The drawing
      instruments explained, and method of making complete working
      drawings described. Scale drawings.

                              PART II. WOOD

    Chapter V. Lumbering and Milling                                    51

      The forest; felling trees and floating logs to the mill. The
      forming and breaking up of log jams. The log boom and modern
      sawmills. Timber and lumber defined. Annual rings; medullary
      rays; formation of grain. Characteristics and defects in
      wood. Warping and shrinkage.

    Chapter VI. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Oaks                            65

      White oak. Post oak. Mossy-cup oak. Black and black-jack oak.
      Red oak. Scarlet and pin oaks. Chestnut oak. Live oak.

    Chapter VII. Broad-Leaved Trees: the Maples                         76

      Sugar and Norway maples. Silver and red maples. Sycamore
      maple. Moosewood. Maple keys. Ash-leaved maple. Japan maples.

    Chapter VIII. Broad-Leaved Trees having Compound Leaves             85

      Horse-chestnut. Buckeye. The hickories. Black walnut and
      butternut. Locust. Honey locust. Ash.

    Chapter IX. Broad-Leaved Trees having Simple Leaves                 94

      Elm. The birches. Beech. Iron wood. Buttonball. Sweet gum.
      Tulip. Basswood. Willow. The poplars. Sassafras. Mulberry.

    Chapter X. The Evergreens                                          111

      White pine. Georgia pine. Yellow pine. Hemlock. Spruce.
      Cypress. Balsam fir. The cedars.

    Chapter XI. The Big Trees of California                            123




ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING

PART I




CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION


In order to obtain good results in the using of tools it is necessary to
know their construction, how to properly sharpen and adjust them, and the
correct method of handling them. It is also essential to know how to lay
out and work the material or stock. Carelessness or a lack of knowledge
is invariably followed by a failure. It is more important at first to
work carefully and accurately than rapidly.

“Tools are made to be used, not abused.” They must be kept _clean_ and
_sharp_ and should be used only for the purpose intended. Wipe them off
occasionally with an oily rag or waste to prevent them from rusting. Put
away all tools not in use and keep the top of the bench clean. Do not
mark it with a pencil or scratch it with a knife. Do not cut into it with
the chisel or allow other tools to mark or deface it. When using glue,
shellac, or similar materials, cover the top of the bench; or, better
still, do the work on a table provided for that purpose.

The plan of work in making all models is in general the same and is as
follows:

    _First._ “Squaring up” the stock.

    _Second._ “Laying out” the work.

    _Third._ Cutting to the lines.

When the article is composed of two or more pieces a fourth step may be
added, namely, fitting and securing the parts.

The tools used may be divided into three groups, as follows:

    _First._ Laying-out tools. These include the rule, try-square,
    marking gauge, bevel, and knife.

    _Second._ Cutting tools. In this group are the saw, plane,
    chisel, spokeshave, bit, and knife.

    _Third._ Miscellaneous tools, such as the hammer, mallet,
    screw-driver, brace (or bitstock), and others not so common.




CHAPTER II

MEASURING AND MARKING TOOLS


=1. The Rule.= The standard unit of length is the yard, but the foot is
commonly used for all measurements in woodwork. If the rule be twelve
inches long it is known as a foot rule, and if twenty-four inches long
it is called a two-foot rule. The inches are subdivided into halves,
quarters, eighths, and in some cases sixteenths. Rules are usually of
boxwood or maple, with brass joints, and are commonly made to fold once
or twice.

[Illustration: FIG. 1. The Rule]

The rule is quite thick, and if laid flat upon the work to be measured
errors will usually follow. It should be stood on edge so that the pencil
or knife point may touch the divisions on it and the wood at the same
time. The proper position when laying out measurements is shown in the
sketch (Fig. 2). Consecutive measurements should be laid off without
moving the rule.

[Illustration: FIG. 2. Methods of using the Rule: _A_, incorrect; _B_,
correct]

=2. The Try-Square.= The try-square has two distinct uses: first, to
act as a guide for the pencil or knife point in laying out lines across
the grain at right angles to the edge, as shown in Fig. 4; second, for
testing or trying the adjoining sides to see if they are square with each
other.

[Illustration: FIG. 3. The Try-Square]

The try-square may be made entirely of iron or steel, but sometimes the
beam _A_ is of wood with a brass strip _C_ to protect it and to take the
wear. The blade _B_ is of steel and is divided, like a rule, into inches
and fractions of an inch. Try-squares are made in several sizes, the most
convenient for general use being six inches.

[Illustration: FIG. 4. Methods of using the Try-Square]

In using the try-square the beam should be held firmly against the face
or edge of the stock. When working near the end of the piece, if the beam
projects, reverse its position. For nice, accurate work the knife point
instead of the pencil should be used for lining.

When it is desired to saw off the end of the stock it is first necessary
to mark or square clear around it with the knife and try-square. In doing
this the beam of the try-square must be used against the work face and
joint edge only. Large squares made of steel in one piece are called
_framing squares_, and are used by carpenters and others for rough or
large work.

[Illustration: FIG. 5. The Framing Square]

[Illustration: FIG. 6. The Marking Gauge]

=3. The Marking Gauge.= The marking gauge is shown in Figs. 6 and 7. _A_
is the gauge stick, _B_ the gauge block, _S_ the set screw, and _P_ the
marking point, or _spur_. The gauge stick is graduated like a rule into
inches and fractions, beginning at the steel marking point; but as the
latter is not always exactly in the right place the graduations are not
entirely reliable. It is safer then to set the gauge with the rule in the
manner shown in Fig. 7.

Hold gauge bottom side up in left hand and rule in right. Place end of
rule against gauge block and the measurement desired at spur. Turn set
screw. The gauge is then accurately set. In the cut the gauge is set at
one inch and is ready for use.

[Illustration: FIG. 7. Setting the Marking Gauge]

To gauge a line parallel to the edge of a block hold the tool firmly,
with thumb and forefinger encircling gauge block. Tip the tool away from
you until the marking point (spur) barely touches the wood and push the
tool away from (never toward) you. The line made should be as fine as a
knife line. A little practice is needed to give the proper control, as
the marking point tends to follow the grain of the wood, which is usually
not straight.

[Illustration: FIG. 8. Holding the Marking Gauge]

A good plan is to use a small piece of prepared stock as a practice
block, laying out lines a quarter of an inch apart, then an eighth, and
finally a sixteenth.

=4. The Bevel.= The bevel differs from the try-square in having a movable
blade.

[Illustration: FIG. 9. The Bevel]

This tool may be used to lay out lines at any angle from zero to 180
degrees. The blade may be fixed firmly at any desired angle by simply
turning the set screw. The method of using it is similar to that of the
try-square.




CHAPTER III

CUTTING TOOLS


=5. Saws.= The saw might be described as a succession of chisels, one
back of the other. We can readily understand the action of the saw by
making cuts with a narrow chisel along the grain of a piece of wood, as
shown in Fig. 10 at _a_.

[Illustration: FIG. 10. Cutting with and across the Grain with a Narrow
Chisel]

The little pieces of wood removed in this way are similar to the sawdust
made by the saw, the only difference being that in the saw the teeth are
narrower and the little pieces consequently smaller, and instead of one
chisel dozens are being pushed forward at one time.

A saw with these chisel-shaped teeth, and used for cutting along the
grain, is called a _ripsaw_.

That this tool will not cut so readily across the grain may easily be
proved by again resorting to the narrow chisel and attempting to repeat
the first experiment. The wood will act as shown in Fig. 10 at _b_,
splitting along the grain in both directions. It is quite evident, then,
that a tool for cutting across the grain must be constructed in some
other way.

[Illustration: FIG. 11. The Saw]

Continuing this experiment, let us cut the fibers with a knife point in
two parallel lines across the grain, close together, as at _c_. It will
be found that the wood between these lines may now be easily removed with
the narrow chisel. This fact is made the basis on which we construct the
crosscut saw. Every tooth is sharpened to a point, one on the right side,
the next on the left, giving two parallel lines of sharp points designed
to cut the fibers, as was done in our experiment with the knife. Fig.
12 shows the end view of the crosscut teeth enlarged. Observe that not
only are the alternate teeth sharpened on opposite sides, but each tooth
is bent outward from the body of the saw. This bending is called _set_,
and is designed to make the saw cut, or _kerf_, wider than the thickness
of the saw, that the latter may pass easily through the wood after the
teeth have done their work. If it were not for this set, the fibers would
spring back against the body of the saw after the teeth had passed and
make the work very laborious. When a saw is properly set it should pass
through the wood easily.

[Illustration: FIG. 12. Teeth of Crosscut Saw]

[Illustration: FIG. 13. Teeth of Ripsaw]

The teeth of the ripsaw are also set, but, as will be seen in the sketch,
the bottoms are flat like a chisel instead of pointed like those of the
crosscut teeth.

Beside the end views of the two kinds of teeth, the side views, which are
also different, are shown in Figs. 12 and 13.

We are inclined to think of the saw as a very commonplace article, yet
a careful examination will prove that the greatest care and skill are
needed in its manufacture. Observe that the body, which must be of the
best steel, tapers, being considerably wider at the handle than at the
opposite end. This is to give strength, and to prevent _buckling_, or
bending, as the tool is pushed forward.

[Illustration: FIG. 14. Body of Saw, showing Tapers]

Most delicate measurements must be made, however, to discover that
not only the width but the thickness increases from _A_ to _B_, and
decreases from _C_ to _D_. How carefully this tapering must be done can
be realized when we know that the difference in thickness from _A_ to
_B_ is only three one-thousandths of an inch, and from _C_ to _D_ twelve
one-thousandths at end _A_ and five one-thousandths at end _B_.

[Illustration: FIG. 15. Method of holding the Saw]

The saw should be held in the right hand, with the left grasping the
board. The thumb of the left hand acts as guide, the saw is tilted, as
shown in Fig. 15, and drawn toward the worker at the first stroke. This
tool should be used without exerting much pressure, in accordance with
the general rule that we do our best work with tools when we work easily
and deliberately.

[Illustration: FIG. 16. The Backsaw]

Many varieties of saws are designed for special purposes, including those
which cut stone and metal.

[Illustration: FIG. 17. Method of using the Backsaw and Bench Hook]

=6. Backsaw.= The backsaw is a crosscut saw with small teeth, and has
a heavy steel backpiece, Fig. 17, to prevent bending. In this respect
it differs from the ordinary crosscut varieties, which bend readily.
The purpose of the backsaw is to make fine, straight cuts in delicate,
accurate work. The steel back _B_ is necessary on account of the thin
blade, but on account of the thickness of _B_ no cut can be made deeper
than the line _C_. This tool will cut in any direction with reference to
the grain, but is primarily a crosscut saw.

[Illustration: FIG. 18. The Bench Hook]

[Illustration: FIG. 19. The Turning Saw]

=7. The Turning Saw.= In ordinary work the saw is supposed to cut to
a straight line, but there are certain classes of work where it is
desirable to follow a curved line, and consequently a special tool is
necessary. The turning saw shown in the cut is used for this purpose.
The handles holding the saw blade may be turned in any direction with
reference to the frame.

=8. The Plane.= The plane reduces our rough lumber to planed, or
_dressed_, stock. The cutting part is a thin, wide chisel called the
_plane iron_.

[Illustration: FIG. 20. The Plane Iron in Action]

Fig. 20 shows the position of the plane iron in operation. Assume the
iron to be moving in the direction of the arrow on a piece of wood. The
sharp point would enter the board and, should the grain be unfavorable,
start a splitting action, as shown at _a_.

We wish to smooth the wood instead of roughing it, and must in some way
stop the splitting. This is accomplished by placing a cap iron on the
plane iron, as shown at _b_. The cap bends and breaks the shaving before
the splitting action has a chance to begin, and gives the spiral form so
familiar in wood shavings.

[Illustration: FIG. 21. Plane Iron, Cap, and Set Screw]

The cap is firmly fastened to the plane iron by a stout screw, and this
whole combination is fastened in the throat of the plane by a clamp
(Fig. 22). The opening on the bottom of the plane through which the
cutting edge protrudes is called the _mouth_ of the plane.

[Illustration: FIG. 22. Sectional Views of Iron Plane]

=9. Adjustment of Plane.= There are two ways of adjusting a modern iron
plane,—by means of the set screw _s_, and of the lever _l_.

Screw _s_ lowers or raises the plane iron so that we may take a thin or
thick shaving, and lever _l_ straightens the iron, which is liable to
project more on one side than on the other, and will then take a shaving
thicker on one side than on the other.

Before using the plane always examine it carefully. Invert the tool,
holding it toward the light with the toe toward you, and glance along the
bottom. If the iron projects, observe whether it is even, and if not,
move the lever until it is. For a thin shaving the cutting edge should
appear as a black line of uniform thickness. For a heavy shaving turn the
brass screw until the iron projects slightly.

In using the plane avoid a stooping position. Stand with the right side
to the bench and with the shoulders thrown back. Let the pressure of the
left hand be greater at the beginning and that of the right hand at the
end of the stroke. The tool should rest perfectly flat on the wood from
start to finish.

[Illustration: FIG. 23. Irons of Smooth and Jack Planes]

=10. The Jack Plane.= The ordinary plane iron has a straight edge, as
shown at _a_, Fig. 23, but when a large quantity of wood is to be removed
the iron is sharpened in the shape shown at _b_. This curved iron will
cut out the wood in hollows, leaving ridges between, and it is necessary
to follow this jack plane with a finer one having a straight edge in
order to smooth the surface. The jack plane might be called a _roughing_
plane.

[Illustration: FIG. 24. Relative Sizes of Smooth and Jack Planes

The lower figure is a jack plane]

=11. The Smooth Plane.= The smoothing plane is shorter than the jack
plane, its object being to smooth the surface without regard to
straightening it, as it is supposed that the straightening has previously
been done. The cap iron in the smooth plane should be set from a
sixteenth to a thirty-second of an inch from the cutting edge of the
plane iron.

[Illustration: FIG. 25. Action of Short and Long Planes]

=12. Jointers.= For straightening very rough and uneven stock a long
plane is necessary (Fig. 25). In the illustration let line _ab_ represent
the edge of a very uneven board. A short plane _c_ would simply follow
the hills and hollows, smoothing but not straightening it, while a long
plane, as shown at _d_, would merely cut off the top of the high places,
as shown by the dotted line, and would not touch the bottoms of the
hollows until all the elevations were leveled; in other words, until the
surface was straightened. Such planes, which are often three feet long or
more, are called _jointers_.

[Illustration: FIG. 26. The Block Plane]

=13. The Block Plane.= To square the end of a piece of stock the
conditions are quite different from those just described where we were
planing with the grain. In end planing no cap iron is necessary, the
plane iron in the block plane being reversed with bevel side up.

This tool requires more care than the others, as the stroke is usually
quite short, and if the cutting edge is allowed to reach the farther
corner, the latter will be broken off.

[Illustration: FIG. 27. Method of using Block Plane]

To avoid this error the plane must be lifted up before the end of the
stroke, as shown by the dotted line _a_. The piece is then reversed, and
planed as shown by arrow _b_. In this way the whole end is smoothed,
without ruining the corners.

Besides these standard planes there are many patent and special ones for
cutting tongues, grooves, beads, etc.

=14. The Wooden Plane.= Although the iron-bodied planes just described
are now in common use, the old-fashioned wooden plane is still the
favorite of many woodworkers.

[Illustration: FIG. 28. The Wooden Plane]

This tool, while lacking some of the adjustments of the iron plane, was
much simpler and contained a smaller number of parts.

The iron and cap were held in position by a wooden wedge, which was
driven in by a light blow of the hammer. The workman removed the iron and
wedge by turning the plane upside down and striking the forward part a
light downward blow on the bench, while the thickness of the shaving was
increased by a light tap on the plane iron.

One of the chief objections to the wooden plane was its liability to wear
and warp, so that it became necessary to straighten, or _joint_, the
face. No such difficulty is encountered in the iron-bodied plane.

=15. The Chisel.= The chisel is one of the simplest forms of cutting
tools. The size of the angle _a_ depends on the kind of material to be
cut.

[Illustration: FIG. 29. Cutting Angle of Chisel]

A chisel for cutting wood must be sharpened to an angle of from 30 to 35
degrees.

By careless sharpening an extra bevel is sometimes formed, as shown at
_b_.

The cutting angle is then no sharper than if the chisel were shaped like
that shown by dotted lines, and care must always be taken when sharpening
to keep the line _cd_ straight, so that angle _a_ will be the real
cutting angle.

Two classes of chisels are in common use: the _framing chisel_ used for
heavy work, such as the frames of buildings; and the _firmer chisel_.
The framing chisel is strong and heavy, and has a handle capable of
withstanding the blows of a mallet. The firmer chisel is designed for
finer and lighter work without the mallet.

[Illustration: FIG. 30. The Framing Chisel]

[Illustration: FIG. 31. The Firmer Chisel]

[Illustration: FIG. 32. Proper Position for Horizontal Chiseling]

The chisel must be sharp if we wish to do good and accurate work, and a
cut on the hand made by such a sharp tool is liable to be a deep one.
Special care must be used in handling it, keeping both hands away from
the cutting edge, as shown in the sketch, and placing it when not in use
where it cannot be pushed off the bench on to the floor or the student’s
feet.

Fig. 32 shows the method of using the tool on horizontal work, and Fig.
33 for vertical cutting. For this kind of work only a small portion of
the cutting edge can be used, the student judging for himself how heavy a
cut to take by the hardness of the wood and amount of strength required.
Good work can never be done when one has to exert all his strength on the
tool. The best results are obtained when we work easily.

[Illustration: FIG. 33. Proper Position for Vertical Chiseling]

Better work can usually be done with the chisel if, instead of pushing
it straight ahead or straight downward, we incline it somewhat so as to
secure a slight _paring_ action.

[Illustration: FIG. 34. Sharpening Chisel on Oilstone]

When the chisel becomes dull, unless its edge has been nicked or ruined
by some accident, it is only necessary to sharpen it on the oilstone.
Hold the tool with the bevel flat on the stone. A drop or two of oil may
be used to lubricate the stone, the tool being worked back and forth on
the face of it. Especial care must be taken to avoid a rocking motion,
which will produce a curved edge instead of a flat one.

[Illustration: FIG. 35. Common Forms of the Brace]

After the rubbing, reverse the chisel, lay the flat side firmly on the
stone, and draw toward you. This is to straighten the wire edge which
has been turned over by the rubbing. The wire edge may then be removed
by drawing the cutting edge across the end of a block of wood. When the
chisel is nicked or very dull it must be ground on the grindstone.

=16. Brace and Bit.= The old-fashioned augers and gimlets have given way
to the modern brace and bit.

[Illustration: FIG. 36. The Center Bit]

The brace, which is sometimes called the bitstock, allows both hands to
be used continuously, which was not true of the old-fashioned auger.
Several varieties of the brace are in use, the ones shown in the cuts
being common.

Bits are designed for a variety of purposes, the name being applied to
a tool which is to be turned by the brace. The old-fashioned center bit
shown in the cut possessed most of the essentials of a good boring tool.

[Illustration: FIG. 37. The Auger Bit]

The sharp spur in the center allowed the hole to be accurately placed.
The lip on the outer edge cut the fibers in a circle before the chisel
edge began to remove the wood, and so a smooth hole could be bored; but
considerable pressure was necessary to force the tool through the wood.

The progress that has been made in the manufacture of tools can be easily
appreciated by comparing this center bit with the modern auger bit.

Referring to the sketch (Fig. 38), _B_ _B_ are two knife points, or
_nibs_, which cut the wood fibers before the chisel edges, or _lips_, _C_
_C_, can touch the wood. The point _A_ allows us to accurately place the
center of the hole where we wish it, and the screw back of _A_ draws the
tool into the wood as it revolves. This part is known as the spur, or
_worm_. On this class of bits no pressure is necessary.

[Illustration: FIG. 38. Details of Auger Bit]

The opposite end of the bit, called the _shank_, fits into the brace. Any
tool with such a shank, and designed for use with the brace, is a bit. We
have screw-driver bits, gimlet bits, auger bits, etc.

On the shank of an auger bit will be found a number. This is the
numerator of a fraction whose denominator is 16. If we find this number
to be 4, it is a ⁴⁄₁₆, or a ¼-inch bit. If the number is 16, we have a
¹⁶⁄₁₆, or a one-inch bit, etc., always referring to the diameter of the
hole which the tool will bore.

In using the brace and bit care must be taken to see that the bit shank
is far enough in the brace to be fastened securely, and that the tool
is held at right angles to the wood. It may appear from the front to be
perfectly vertical, yet by stepping to one side and looking at it from
another position it will frequently be found far from vertical. When
starting a hole it is well to do this several times until assured that
the tool is working in a true upright position.

[Illustration: FIG. 39. The Gimlet Bit]

[Illustration: FIG. 40. The Countersink Bit]

The gimlet bit is used for small holes, such as we make for screws. In
this case the hole must be _countersunk_ to receive the screw head, when
flat-headed screws are used. The countersink bit is shown in the cut, and
its purpose is more fully explained in the chapter on screws.

=17. The Spokeshave.= The spokeshave is practically a short plane with
handles at the side so that the tool may be drawn or pushed. It may be
adjusted by means of screws to take light or heavy shavings, and is used
principally to smooth curved surfaces. The forming of a hammer handle
is a good illustration of the kind of work it will do. It may be worked
toward or away from the worker, and is an exceedingly handy tool.

[Illustration: FIG. 41. The Iron Spokeshave]




CHAPTER IV

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS AND METHODS OF WORK


=18. Hammer.= The carpenter’s hammer is used principally to drive or
withdraw nails.

The various trades have hammers made specially for their needs; thus
we have machinists’, roofers’, upholsterers’, stonecutters’, and other
hammers, but the claw hammer shown in the sketch is the one commonly used
by workers in wood.

[Illustration: FIG. 42. The Claw Hammer]

The head _a_ (Fig. 43) is of steel, with the face _b_ specially hardened
so that it may not be dented by the nails. Notice the length of the
handle _h_. This length did not simply happen. Had it been intended to
hold the tool in the position shown at _A_, the handle would not have
been made so long. The proper position is that shown at _B_. Position _A_
is frequently taken by beginners, and should be studiously avoided.

[Illustration: FIG. 43. Using the Hammer]

A nail may be withdrawn with the claw, and be kept straight for further
use by a little care. Having started the nail slightly, place a small
block of wood under the hammer head, as shown at _C_. Should the nail be
an unusually long one, the size of the block may be increased as the nail
comes out.

[Illustration: FIG. 44. Common Forms of Nail Punch, or “Set”]

In driving nails care must always be taken not to mar the surface of
the wood by striking the nail head after it has become even with the
surface, as this produces a depression and ruins any fine surface.

If it is desirable to sink the nail head below the surface, a nail punch,
or _set_, is used. This is always necessary when the surface is to be
planed after the nailing.

=19. The Mallet.= The mallet might be described as a hammer with a wooden
head, and is used whenever we wish to deliver a blow which shall be less
concentrated than that of the hammer. It is used in certain kinds of
heavy chiseling, such as house framing, and gives a blow which does not
shatter the tool handle as a hammer would.

[Illustration: FIG. 45. The Mallet]

The use of the mallet is well illustrated by the making of a
mortise-and-tenon joint, the chisel and mallet being used to cut the
opening known as the mortise, as shown in Fig. 46.

=20. Screw-Driver.= The screw-driver is perhaps the most common of
household tools, and is probably abused more than any other. The handle
is usually flattened so that the hand may grip it more tightly, but
occasionally a round or fluted handle is seen.

Patent spiral screw-drivers have come into use in recent years, but where
considerable force is required the brace and screw-driver bit are more
effective.

[Illustration: FIG. 46. Cutting a Mortise]

=21. Sandpaper.= “Sandpaper is the last resort of a poor workman.” This
statement has been made by many teachers to many thousands of students,
and is true in many cases; but there are certain kinds of work where
sandpaper, if properly used, is allowable.

[Illustration: FIG. 47. The Screw-Driver]

It must always be kept in mind that a surface which has been sandpapered
has become “gritty,” i.e. the fine sand has come off and is more or less
imbedded in the wood. Consequently sandpapering must not be done until
all tool work has been finished, as the grit will take the edge off the
best tool, and the finer the edge the more quickly will it be ruined.

[Illustration: FIG. 48. An Exercise involving the Use of Sandpaper]

Again, a sandpapered surface is always a scratched surface, and the
finest of scratched surfaces cannot compare with the perfectly smooth,
satiny surface produced by a sharp plane. However, there are many places
where neither the plane nor spokeshave can be used, and here it is
allowable to use sandpaper after the tool work has been carried as far as
practicable.

Fig. 48 is a case where sandpaper may be used with propriety. The bevels
in this lesson are to be chiseled and then sandpapered with a sandpaper
block,—the block in this case being simply a small piece of wood with
square edges, about which the sandpaper is fastened closely.

Curved articles, such as the hammer handle, must dispense with the block,
the sandpaper being held in the hand.

=22. Squaring up Stock.= This term simply means to reduce a piece of
sawed or rough lumber to one having smooth, flat sides at right angles to
each other, and of definite length, breadth, and thickness (see Fig. 49).

[Illustration: FIG. 49. The Successive Steps in squaring up Stock]

    _First._ Straighten one face with fore plane, jack plane, or
    jointer, and smooth with smoothing plane. This face, called the
    working face, becomes the basis from which all the other sides
    are squared.

    _Second._ Plane one of the adjoining edges and make square with
    the working face. This edge, known as the joint edge, must
    be thoroughly tested throughout its entire length with the
    try-square, and must be square with the working face at every
    point.

    _Third._ Set marking gauge at required width and with gauge
    block against the joint edge, gauge a fine line on working face.

    _Fourth._ Plane down second edge to gauge line, just drawn,
    squaring the edge with working face.

    _Fifth._ Set gauge to required thickness and gauge line on both
    edges from working face.

    _Sixth._ Plane face parallel to working face down to the two
    gauge lines. This gives the required thickness. It only remains
    now to secure the required length.

    _Seventh._ Square knife line around the four smoothed sides
    with knife and try-square as near one end as possible,
    carefully observing the precautions given in Chapter II.

    _Eighth._ From the line just drawn, measure the required length
    along edge of working face and square a line on the four sides
    at the last point, as at first end.

    _Ninth._ Block-plane first end to knife lines. If the second
    line is more than an eighth of an inch from the end of block,
    saw to the knife line with backsaw, and block-plane smooth and
    square.

The above method should always be followed in preparing stock for laying
out the exercise.

=23. Laying Out.= Let it be assumed that the exercise to be executed is
the middle lap joint shown at _A_, Fig. 50.

[Illustration: FIG. 50. Successive Steps in laying out and making a
Middle Lap Joint]

    _First._ Square up stock, leaving ends rough.

    _Second._ Lay off the length of each piece, in this case 4½
    inches, with an eighth of an inch between for sawing, as at _a_.

    _Third._ Square all the lines around four sides.

    _Fourth._ Saw to end lines and block-plane ends.

    _Fifth._ Lay off width of opening in piece No. 1 and square
    lines across face and halfway down on both edges.

    _Sixth._ Measure length of lap on No. 2, square the line across
    bottom and halfway up the sides. Gauge the horizontal lines
    _ll_ from working face.

    _Seventh._ Saw pieces No. 1 and No. 2 apart and block-plane
    ends.

    _Eighth._ Saw to the lines, chisel, and fit the pieces.

Although the above is the method of laying out a typical joint, each
problem will require special treatment and here the student will be
guided by his instructor.

=24. Securing Parts.= Many articles made of wood consist of several
pieces fastened together.

When two pieces are fitted together the surfaces of contact are called a
joint. There are many kinds and shapes in joinery, and usually some extra
fastening is required to hold the pieces together. These aids are glue,
nails, and screws; while on heavy construction still others, such as
wedges, pins, and dowels are used. The first three are commonly used in
small work.

[Illustration: FIG. 51. The Hand Screw]

Glue is of two kinds, fish and animal. Both are made from refuse
matter,—animal glue being manufactured from such products as bone, horn,
hoofs, and hide.

The dry glue in the form of chips must be dissolved in water and heated,
being applied while hot. Liquid glues sold in cans ready for use are now
very common and require no heating.

In making a glued joint it is usually necessary to hold the pieces
tightly together until the glue has _set_, or hardened, and as this takes
some time, hand screws built on the principle of the vise are resorted
to. Fig. 52 shows two pieces glued together and fastened in a pair of
hand screws. Care must always be taken to keep the jaws of the latter
parallel. At _a_ this is shown done properly, while at _b_ is shown a
careless method which, of course, will spoil the joint.

[Illustration: FIG. 52. Method of using the Hand Screw]

In gluing on the end grain a preliminary, or _sizing_, coat of glue must
first be made to fill up the pores, which act very much like a sponge.
This coat should be allowed to dry, or partially dry, before applying
the final coat; otherwise the pieces will be held weakly, if at all.
Beginners are inclined to use too large a quantity, and this tendency
should be avoided.

In some cases nails are used together with the glue, as at the corners
of picture frames. It is customary in this instance to nail in only one
direction, as shown in Fig. 53.

[Illustration: FIG. 53. Miter Joint at Corner of Picture Frame]

=25. Nails.= The nails in common use are of two kinds, _cut_ and _wire_.

Two views of a cut nail are shown in Fig. 54, _a_ being the side view and
_b_ the front view. Notice that in the front view the sides converge like
a wedge, while in the side view they are parallel.

[Illustration: FIG. 54. Use of Cut Nails]

Care must always be taken that the point does not enter the wood as shown
at _c_, as the wood will be split by the wedge action; _d_ shows the
proper method.

Steel wire nails are now in general use. They are made from wire and are
consequently round in section, with a comparatively sharp point. There
are two distinct kinds, named _flat head_ and _bung head_.

Flat-head wire nails, as the name implies, have thin, flat heads, which
prevent the nail from being driven beneath the surface.

Bung-head wire nails, or _brads_ as the smaller sizes are called, have
very small heads, which allow the nail to be sunk below the surface. This
is done by means of the nail punch, or _set_, and is necessary when the
surface is to be planed after the nailing.

=26. Screws.= Screws are much used, and allow the pieces to be readily
taken apart. They are divided into two classes, _flat head_ and _round
head_, and are of steel or brass. Steel screws are either _blued_ or
_bright_. Bright screws are polished and blued screws are produced by
treating the bright ones with heat or an acid.

[Illustration: FIG. 55. Methods of using Screws]

Fig. 55 shows a flat-head screw at _a_ and a round-head at _b_. Flat
heads are used for the more common work where it is desirable to have the
screw head flush (even) with the surface or below it, while round heads
are used where this is not necessary. In the latter case round heads are
used partly because they are more ornamental. Flat heads must always
be flush or below the surface, and in all but the softest woods it is
necessary not only to bore a hole for the screw, but also to countersink
it with a countersink bit in order that it may receive the head. Two
methods of fastening with flat-head screws are shown in Fig. 55.

Sketch _A_ shows the two pieces of wood in position, the hole bored in
upper piece (only) and countersunk; _B_ shows the screw in position. In
this case the screw head is visible. It is occasionally desirable to hide
the screw entirely. Sketch _C_ shows the hole prepared for the screw; _D_
shows the screw in position and a circular wooden plug driven in over it.
The plug is then leveled with the surface and the screw completely hidden.

[Illustration: FIG. 56. The Difference between Perspective and Mechanical
Drawing]

=27. Mechanical Drawing.= A mechanical, or working, drawing is quite
different from a pictorial drawing such as an artist produces. The
artist’s drawing represents objects as they appear, while the mechanical
drawing represents them as they really are. Things in nature do not
look as they are. For example, when we stand on a railroad track the
rails appear to converge until they seem to meet in the distance. We
know that this is not the case, that the rails are really everywhere
equally distant. The optical illusion of the rails meeting at the horizon
is called perspective. Mechanical, or constructive, drawing takes no
account of perspective. In Fig. 56 _a_ is the perspective representation
of a track, while _b_ shows a track by mechanical drawing.

In a working drawing more than one view is necessary to show the true
shape of an object.

In Fig. 57 is shown the mechanical drawing of a cylinder,—the front
view, as its name implies, being the image it would make in a mirror
held before it vertically, and the top view the image it would make in a
mirror held directly over it horizontally.

[Illustration: FIG. 57. Mechanical Drawing of a Cylinder]

[Illustration: FIG. 58. Mechanical Drawing of End Lap Joint]

Occasionally three views are necessary. Fig. 58 _a_ shows the front, top,
and side views of an end lap joint. The complete working drawing of this
joint, with all the necessary dimensions, is shown at _b_.

[Illustration: FIG. 59. Drawing Board showing T Square and Triangles in
Position]

In making drawings of this kind the greatest accuracy is required and
special instruments are necessary.

The drawing board on which the paper is fastened must be perfectly flat,
with one of its edges straight.

[Illustration: FIG. 60. The T Square]

The T square is used for guiding the pencil or pen when drawing
horizontal lines.

The two triangles _t_ _t_ (Fig. 59) are used for drawing vertical and
oblique lines, and a pair of compasses is needed for circles and arcs
of circles. Each triangle contains one right angle, the one on the
left being known as a thirty-sixty triangle because the two remaining
angles are thirty degrees and sixty degrees respectively. The one on
the right is called a forty-five-degree triangle because it has two
forty-five-degree angles.

The position of T square and triangle when drawing vertical lines is
that shown in the sketch, the line being drawn from the T square upward.
Horizontal lines are drawn from left to right.

The rule used in mechanical drawing is called a scale, and should not be
used for drawing lines. Its purpose is measuring.

[Illustration: FIG. 61. The Triangles used in Mechanical Drawing]

In making a drawing the first step is to determine the spacing. The size
of the paper may be measured, the number of views are known, and also the
size of each. The views should be so arranged that the spaces between
will be in good proportion. It is a good plan to make first a free-hand
sketch, putting on dimensions and figuring the spaces before beginning
actual work on the mechanical drawing. Fig. 62 at _a_ shows a free-hand
sketch of a single dovetail joint, and _b_ the mechanical drawing
complete.

[Illustration: FIG. 62. Drawings of a Single Dovetail Joint]

All dimensions must be given, and as far as possible they should be so
placed as not to interfere with the clearness of the drawing. Neat, small
arrowheads and plain, clear figures add to the general appearance, just
as does careful lettering in titles and all printed words.

A drawing which is made the exact size of the object represented is
known as a full-sized drawing; but for large objects such a method would
necessitate large and unhandy sheets of drawing paper. It is customary in
such cases to make what is called a scale drawing.

A scale drawing may be half, quarter, or eighth size, and the fact is
printed under the title in smaller letters, thus: ½ inch = 1 inch, or ¼
inch = 1 inch.

Other scales may be used. In map making, for example, a sixteenth of an
inch may represent one, ten, or even a hundred miles. Whatever scale is
used, however, the dimensions must always give the exact size of the
object represented.




ELEMENTARY WOODWORKING

PART II




CHAPTER V

WOOD


[Illustration: FIG. 63. The Forest, Norway Spruce, Bavaria, Germany]

=28. Lumbering and Milling.= It is well to remember, when using wood for
any purpose, that it was once part of a living tree which had roots,
bark, leaves, and flowers, and that the tree began life as a little
sapling, which grew taller and larger for years before it could be
called a tree, and that it was between fifty and a hundred years old
before it was large enough to cut down for timber.

[Illustration: FIG. 64. Felling a Tree]

The lumberman selects trees which have large, straight trunks. They are
usually cut with the ax, although the first cut is often made partially
through the trunk with a saw. The branches are then chopped off and the
body of the tree cut into lengths convenient for handling. They are
rolled into a stream and floated down the river to a sawmill, or, in case
there is no river near by, are carted on sleds or wagons to the railroad
and thence to the mill.

The cutting of the trees is usually done in winter, the floating of the
logs, or _river driving_ as it is called, beginning with the breaking
up of the ice in the spring. River driving is a very interesting and
dangerous business. Logs will often get caught sidewise and the whole
river from shore to shore become jammed so tightly that hundreds of
thousands of logs are stopped in their course, forming an immense dam
which the lumbermen call a _log jam_.

[Illustration: FIG. 65. A Skidway of Adirondack Spruce]

[Illustration: FIG. 66. River Drivers breaking up a “Log Jam”]

[Illustration: FIG. 67. Log Boom and Lumber Piles at Tupper Lake, N.Y.]

[Illustration: FIG. 68. A Modern Gang Saw—Interior of Modern Sawmill]

To break up this jam very often requires much labor and great daring on
the part of the drivers, who wear spiked shoes and are armed with long
poles having sharp steel points. When such a jam breaks up, the crashing
of the logs and rush of water can be heard for miles.

Having finally reached the mill, the logs float in the river, inclosed in
a _log boom_, until the mill men are ready to saw them into planks.

[Illustration: FIG. 69. A Modern Sawmill]

The boom consists of logs chained together and stretched across the river
just as a fence is built on land to inclose cattle.

[Illustration: FIG. 70. The Circular Saw—Interior of Sawmill]

The sawmill of to-day is a mass of automatic machinery, and after the log
enters it is not touched by human hands until it comes out as lumber of
various sizes ready to be loaded on boats or cars.

Logs are sawed into timber, planks, or boards, and these forms are called
_lumber_.

[Illustration: FIG. 71. A Large Band Saw]

_Timber_ refers to all of the largest sizes, such as beams and joists.
Planks are wide strips over one inch thick, and boards are one inch or
less in thickness, varying in width and length. Lumber may be planed at a
planing mill, and is then known as _dressed_ lumber. It may be dressed on
one, two, or all sides. Dressed stock which is free from knots, shakes,
and sapwood is called _clear_.

[Illustration: FIG. 72. End of Log, showing Annual Rings and Medullary
Rays]

By examining the end of a log we can learn a great deal of the life of
the tree. It is made up of a number of irregular rings and of lines
radiating from the center and running in nearly straight lines toward the
bark.

The number of rings tells us the age of the tree, as a new ring is added
each year.

As the tree grows, the old wood near the center becomes compressed and
dry and is known as the _heartwood_, while that portion between the
heartwood and bark is called _sapwood_.

In some woods the difference between the heartwood and sapwood is very
marked. In ebony, for instance, the heartwood is coal black and the
sapwood white.

The sketch shows half a log, the annual rings being indicated, and also
the radial lines, called _medullary rays_.

[Illustration: FIG. 73. Log cut lengthwise, showing how “Grain” is
formed]

Looking at the length of the log we see that the lines in a board, which
we call the _grain_, are really the edges of the annual rings.

[Illustration: FIG. 74. Showing Weather Checks and “Shake”]

It often happens in the forest that the wind sways the trees to such an
extent that the annual rings separate and slide one within the other;
this produces a defect in the wood called a _shake_ (see _s_, Fig. 74).

There are other characteristics of wood known as _warping_ and
_shrinkage_.

[Illustration: FIG. 75.]

After a tree has been cut down the cut end at first looks like Fig.
72. If it is allowed to lie for some time exposed to the weather, its
appearance changes to Fig. 74. This is due to the evaporation of the
sap, and as there is more sap toward the outside, the shrinkage is
greatest there and becomes less toward the center where the heartwood is
comparatively dry. This is an important fact to know, because if we had
cut the log, while it was still green, into planks, as shown in Fig. 75,
the boards would have curled up or warped, as shown in Fig. 76.

[Illustration: FIG. 76. Showing Effect of Warping]

Besides warping, the evaporation of the sap causes the whole tree to
shrink in diameter, and consequently our planks will tend to become
narrower. This is called _shrinkage_, and in some woods amounts to a
quarter of an inch to the foot, which means that a plank sawed twelve
inches wide will, after a few months, measure only eleven and three
quarter inches.

When we construct anything in wood we must always consider how the object
will be affected by warping and shrinkage, remembering that the shrinkage
is only across the grain.

Let us consider the problem of constructing a drawing board to see how
warping and shrinkage may be overcome.

If we make it of one piece, like _A_ (Fig. 77), the board will soon
change its shape to that shown in _B_, which would make it useless for
mechanical drawing, as a perfectly flat surface is necessary. We can
overcome the warping by screwing heavy cleats on one side across the
grain, as shown at _C_. The cleats would need to be heavy or the warping
force would bend them.

A better way would be to build the board up of several narrow strips
glued together, as the warping of one would be counteracted by the
warping of its neighbors in opposite directions; but to make doubly sure,
cleats fastened with tongue and groove joint should be added at the ends,
as shown at _D_. This has an advantage over the first method, as the
cleats in _C_ are often in the way and make the board clumsy to handle.

[Illustration: FIG. 77. A Study in Construction. Methods of overcoming
Warping and Shrinkage]

The student will find many evidences about the house of how the
woodworker has tried to prevent warping and shrinkage, as, for instance,
in the paneled doors, tables, etc.

The wood of the various trees differs greatly in hardness, evenness of
grain, durability, etc., and every boy should know not only what our
woods are used for, but he should also know the trees when he sees them.

We are indebted to the trees for many things besides wood. They give us
delightful shade and coolness in summer; many of them produce delicious
fruit and nuts; from them we obtain such valuable products as maple sirup
and sugar; while tar, pitch, turpentine, rubber, and tannin are only a
few of the many tree products. The houses we live in, the chairs we sit
on,—in fact, most of our furniture, even to the frames of our pictures,
the cars we ride in, and the very pencils we write with, are of wood
which was once part of the living forest.

[Illustration: FIG. 78. A Large Tree being moved by a Modern Tree Mover,
showing Root Formation]




CHAPTER VI

BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE OAKS


Our American trees may be divided roughly into two classes: (1) those
which keep their leaves the year round, known as _evergreens_; (2) those
whose leaves drop off in the fall, called _broad-leaved_, or _deciduous_
trees, in distinction from the evergreens, whose leaves are usually
needle-shaped.

Among the broad-leaved family are such trees as the oak, chestnut,
hickory, maples, elms, etc.; and among the evergreens or cone-bearing
trees are the pines, spruces, hemlocks, firs, and cedars.

The oak family is a very important one, the wood being hard and strong
and the tree a sturdy, healthy, and well-known specimen of tree life.

White oak is perhaps the most common member of the oak family. It grows
to a very large size and has a leaf of the form shown in Fig. 79. Observe
carefully the outline of the leaf and compare it with the sketch of the
next form.

The white oak, like all oaks, bears acorns, and its timber is used as
a standard when comparing different kinds of wood. If we say that the
strength of white pine is one half, we mean one half that of white oak,
and in all timber calculations white oak is the standard, just as the
yard and mile are standards of length. In work which requires strength,
such as carriage making, shipbuilding, and cooperage, white oak is used
very extensively.

The quartered oak used so much for furniture is obtained by cutting the
logs in a special manner. The method of cutting gives a beautiful mottled
effect with the silver rays spread out in irregular white splashes on a
dark background.

We might separate the oak into two distinct groups: (1) those trees whose
acorns ripen in one season; (2) those which require two years. The acorns
of this latter group remain on the tree throughout the first winter and
ripen the second summer.

To the first class belong the white oak just mentioned, the post oak,
chestnut oaks, mossy-cup oak, and live oak.

[Illustration: FIG. 79. Typical Leaf of the White Oak]

In the second class are the red, scarlet, black, pin, laurel, and willow
oaks.

The difference in the leaves of these trees is so great that we need
never mistake one for the other. Notice the cut of the red oak and
compare it with that of the white oak. The latter has rounded lobes,
while the red-oak leaf has sharp points and the fingers of the leaf are
indented again with smaller teeth.

The different trees in the white-oak family all have leaves with rounded
lobes, and most of those in the red-oak group have pointed ones, yet
there is a difference between members of the same family, just as among
human beings.

We can tell at a glance whether a man is a negro, a Chinaman, or a white
man. If a white man, he may be a Frenchman or an American; and again, if
an American, he may belong to the Jones family. But all the members of
the Jones family do not look alike and we know one from another.

[Illustration: FIG. 80. Leaf of the Post Oak]

This is true of trees. No two are alike, and we can tell from observation
whether a tree is an evergreen or a broad-leaved tree, whether it
belongs to the white-oak group; and after studying trees a little we can
tell whether a member of this group is a white oak, a post oak, or a
mossy-cup oak.

Compare the post-oak leaf (Fig. 80) with that of the white oak. There is
not a great difference in form, but the post-oak leaf is thick, leathery,
and dark green, while the white oak has a beautiful thin, light green
leaf, which turns red in the fall.

The post oak is a rougher and coarser tree than the other, and is
sometimes called _iron oak_ on account of its very hard, tough wood.

[Illustration: FIG. 81. Leaf of Mossy-Cup Oak]

=29. The Mossy-Cup Oak.= One of the most beautiful oaks we have in
America grows in the South and West, and is only rarely found in our
parks in the East. It is called the _mossy-cup oak_ because the large
acorn which it bears is surrounded by a bushy fringe which almost hides
the nut. This acorn is a sight never to be forgotten. The leaf is larger
than that of the white oak, and although the two leaves look somewhat
alike, the divisions of the mossy-cup leaf are not as regular as those
of the white oak, and it is not so thin and delicate.

Its wood is very strong and is valuable for many purposes, such as boats,
carriages, farming implements, railroad ties, and cooperage.

=30. Black Oak and Black-jack Oak.= These two trees are usually found
growing in wild places, and the black-jack oak is often called _barren
oak_ from the fact that it frequents bleak and barren plains, such as the
sandy stretches of New Jersey and Long Island.

[Illustration: FIG. 82. Leaves of Black Oak and Black-jack Oak
(Black-jack on right)]

The sketch shows the difference in the leaves, that of the black-jack
having only three main lobes, or divisions, while the black oak has
five. However, the leaves of these two trees vary considerably, and one
must always look for the typical leaf, which is the one shown in the
sketch. The black-jack is a small, shrubby tree, with branches often
twisted and contorted, and its wood is not very valuable except as fuel
or for making charcoal.

[Illustration: FIG. 83. Leaf of Red Oak]

[Illustration: FIG. 84. Wood of the Red Oak, showing three sections. The
one on the left shows annual rings obtained by a horizontal cut through
the tree. Central view shows vertical cut at center of tree. View on
right shows vertical cut between center and bark as illustrated in Fig.
73.]

The acorns require two seasons for ripening, as do those of the red,
scarlet, and pin oaks.

=31. The Red Oak.= The red oak is one of our largest and most noble
trees, growing taller even than the white oak, and may always be
distinguished by its very large, shiny, dark green leaves.

Its bark is also much smoother and darker than the white oak. Its acorn
is very bitter and can easily be recognized by its shallow cup and by its
large size. It is the largest of the two-year acorns. The wood of the red
oak is darker than that of the white, and is used in the manufacture of
furniture.

[Illustration: FIG. 85. Scarlet Oak]

=32. The Scarlet Oak.= This tree is often confused with the red, but a
glance at the leaves will show a great difference. That of the scarlet
has deeper indentations and is much more slender and skeleton-like in
shape. It takes its name from the bright scarlet or red tinge it takes
on when the leaves change color in the fall.

=33. The Pin Oak.= The pin-oak leaf is much more readily confounded with
the scarlet oak than that of any other tree. In fact, no two trees have
leaves so nearly alike as these two; yet a glance at two typical leaves
placed side by side will show considerable difference.

The pin-oak leaf is smaller than the other, and in proportion to its size
the indentations are not so deep.

[Illustration: FIG. 86. Pin Oak]

The pin-oak tree has a great many small branchlets, or stems, which give
the tree the appearance of a bundle of pins, especially when the leaves
are off in winter. It is a beautiful tree and is now being planted very
extensively as a shade tree. It is hardy, and stands city air very well
indeed. Its bark is rich in tannic acid, which is used in tanning leather.

The oak family is such a large and valuable one that we cannot afford
to pass it over lightly. In the South grows the willow oak, famous for
its shade and its leaves, which resemble those of the willow. A little
farther north we find, along the Ohio valley, the _shingle oak_, so
called from the fact that its wood is mostly made into shingles. It is
also known as the _laurel oak_, because its leaves are shaped like those
of the laurel, although not so glossy.

[Illustration: FIG. 87. Pin Oak in Winter]

This is such an odd shape for an oak leaf that one would be likely to
pass it by and not recognize it but for the fact that it bears acorns.
This is always the test,—“By their fruits ye shall know them.”

If we meet a new tree which seems not to be an oak because its leaves are
new to us, and it bears acorns, we may be sure it is an oak.

A very interesting group of trees which come under this head are the
chestnut oaks. At first glance one would take one of these trees to be a
chestnut, but it bears acorns and must therefore be an oak. The sketch
shows the two leaves side by side.

[Illustration: FIG. 88.

Chestnut

Chestnut Oak]

Let us examine them closely. Although they slightly resemble each other,
by looking carefully we see that the teeth on the chestnut leaf are
pointed, while those on the chestnut oak are decidedly rounded. There is
also a difference in proportion, as the chestnut leaf is long and narrow,
while that of the chestnut oak is broader.

There are several varieties of chestnut oak, but their leaves are quite
similar and they all belong to the white-oak group and ripen their acorns
in one season. They grow to a large size, one famous from Revolutionary
times at Fishkill-on-the-Hudson measuring seven feet in diameter. The
acorns are sweet and are eagerly sought after by the squirrels.

The wood is durable in exposed places and is used for cooperage, railroad
ties, and fencing.

=34. The Live Oak.= No list of American oaks would be complete without
the live oak. This is a southern tree and is remarkable in many ways.
Its leaf has no indentations, remains green all winter, and is thick and
leathery.

[Illustration: FIG. 89. Leaf of Live Oak]

The wood is extremely heavy, a cubic foot weighing nearly sixty pounds.
It is as hard as it is heavy, and although it takes a high polish and has
a fine grain, it soon dulls the edge of a tool.

Before the age of steel, when all ships were wooden, it was much used in
shipbuilding, and the government bought large tracts of land where live
oak grew abundantly, so that the United States navy should never lack the
necessary timber.

It grows along the Atlantic coast, south from Virginia, and along the
Gulf to Texas.




CHAPTER VII

BROAD-LEAVED TREES: THE MAPLES


It is the maple family to which we are indebted for much of the glorious
coloring of our autumn landscapes.

It is true that all trees play their part in the general color scheme,
but for the brilliant reds and scarlets of the fall foliage we must look
to the maples.

When we think of the word _maple_ we are apt to have visions of other
things besides trees. Maple and sugar or sirup seem to go together, and
in fact some of us do not know that there are other maples besides the
sugar maple.

This fine American tree is one of which we should be proud. Not only is
it a handsome large tree, valuable for its shade and the beautiful colors
it wears in the fall, but its wood is hard and valuable,—it is often
called _rock maple_,—and besides all these good qualities it furnishes us
with our maple sirup and sugar.

The process of making maple sugar is quite interesting and may be divided
into two stages,—gathering the sap, and boiling down.

Very early in the spring, often as early as March, the sap begins to flow
up through the tree. The farmer knows by experience when to tap the tree,
which he does by boring a three-quarter inch hole with an auger. Into
this hole he inserts a spout of wood or iron through which the lifeblood
of the tree—the sap—flows in a steady drip, drip, drip, into a pail or
bucket placed beneath to catch it.

The sap comes in drops about as regularly as the ticks of a clock, one
a second. This continues for two or three weeks, until each tree has
yielded something like twenty-five gallons. As it takes five gallons
of sap to produce a pound of sugar, each tree yields about five pounds
of maple sugar. In New England and New York there are maple groves
containing thousands of trees, and one farm alone produces five thousand
pounds of sugar in a season.

Strange as it may seem, this excessive bleeding of the trees does not
kill them unless improperly done. The farmer must not tap them at the
wrong time nor in too many places. The tree will stand a great deal if
properly treated, but harsh treatment will kill it.

The boiling process is very simple. The sap is poured into large boilers
or evaporators and boiled until it becomes a sirup. The old-fashioned
test to find out when the boiling had been carried on long enough was to
drop a little of the hot sirup into the snow or into a cold dish. If it
hardened, the boiling was finished.

Fig. 90 shows the leaf of the sugar maple, also that leaf which is
most often confounded with it, viz., the Norway maple. Observe the two
closely. The sugar maple has blunt, rounded points and is thick, while
the Norway has sharp points, which are more numerous, and the leaf is
much thinner and more delicate.

[Illustration: FIG. 90.

Sugar Maple

Norway Maple]

The sugar maple grows taller and does not cast so dense a shade as the
Norway, which is a low-growing tree with close, dark foliage.

=35. The Silver Maple.= The one which naturally comes next in the list
is the _silver_, _soft_, or _white maple_, as it is variously termed.
From the ground up to the topmost leaf the whole character of this tree
suggests the word _thoroughbred_. Clean-cut, refined, strong, and healthy
in every detail, the silver maple is a thing of beauty and might truly
be called the acme of perfection in tree life. Its name is derived from
the fact that the under side of the leaf is silvery white. The upper
side being dark green gives a beautiful effect when the wind stirs the
foliage, which as a whole has the grace and drooping effect of the
American elm.

[Illustration: FIG. 91.

The Silver Maple

The Red Maple]

This description does not always fit, however, as it is planted
extensively in cities where horses gnaw the fine bark; smoke, soot,
and coal gas discolor the leaves; and the caterpillars complete the
work of destroying its beauty. Yet it still lives, even if it does not
thrive under such harsh treatment. Its wood is white, soft, and not very
valuable.

=36. The Red Maple.= A relative of the silver maple and one which might
be mistaken for it is the red, swamp, or wild maple. It is this tree
which displays the brightest reds in autumn. Referring to the sketch it
will be seen that the leaf is smaller and three-fingered instead of five,
as in the silver variety. The stem of this leaf is also red during the
entire season, as if it could not wait for autumn.

[Illustration: FIG. 92. The Sycamore Maple]

=37. The Sycamore Maple.= In the rows on rows of maples so common in our
towns and cities one will often find a leaf larger, heavier, and coarser
than any of the others. This variety, like the Norway, is an importation
from Europe, known as the _sycamore maple_ because of its resemblance to
the sycamore leaf. It is easily identified by its large size, coarseness,
the very long, thick red stem, and by the fact that its entire edge
is finely toothed,—in which point it differs from all the foregoing
varieties. Its value as a shade tree is nearly equal to the Norway, and
in Europe it is often planted in preference to all other maples.

=38. The Striped Maple.= Growing in the shade of other trees and forming
part of the undergrowth of our North woods is a small tree known as the
_striped maple_, from the stripes which run up and down its bark. The New
England name for this little mountain tree is _moosewood_, from the fact
that the moose is very fond of the bark and twigs, which form his chief
food in winter. The leaves are quite large, but very thin, soft, and
delicate.

[Illustration: FIG. 93. The Striped Maple, or Moosewood]

=39. Maple Keys.= The fruit, or seeds, of all the maples are known as
_winged_. The flat, thin part gives the seed a swirling motion as it
drops from the tree. This is the way nature has of spreading the seed
over a large area so that more trees may be started in life. Many tree
seeds are winged, but the maple seed or key is so large and so common
that every one must at some time have noticed it.

[Illustration: FIG. 94. Maple “Keys,” a Common Form of Winged Seeds]

=40. The Ash-Leaved Maple.= The ash-leaved maple is a leaf very common
in our parks. It has no resemblance to other maple leaves, yet it bears
the unmistakable maple key,—“By their fruits ye shall know them.” It is
therefore a maple.

The box elder, or ash-leaved maple, is interesting because it is our only
maple having a compound leaf; that is, a leaf stem with several distinct
leaflets. Compound leaves are very common (notice the hickory leaf and
the horse-chestnut), but not on maples, and our ash-leaved maple is a
curiosity. It delights in swampy places, but grows almost anywhere. It is
a small tree, and its wood is not especially valuable except for making
paper pulp.

North America has only nine varieties of maple, while China and Japan
have more than thirty. Indeed, it is to Japan, whose forests are largely
made up of maples, that we are indebted for some of the most dainty and
exquisite trees to be found. The Japan maples planted so extensively on
our lawns and in our parks have such a variety of form and color that no
written description can do them justice. Fig. 96 will give some idea of
their shape and delicacy. The colors, which of course cannot be shown,
range from dark purple to the most delicate combinations of white and
green. The finest of these dainty leaves bears a stronger resemblance to
an ostrich plume than to anything in the line of tree leaves.

[Illustration: FIG. 95. Ash-Leaved Maple, or Box Elder]

[Illustration: FIG. 96. Japan Maples]




CHAPTER VIII

BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING COMPOUND LEAVES


The beginner is often in doubt as to whether a twig with several leaves
is a compound leaf or a number of simple leaves. This is a very easy
thing to decide. At the end of the leaf stem, where the leaf joins the
twig or branch, is always a little bud. When the leaf drops off in the
fall the bud remains, and in the spring begins to swell and finally
develops into a leaf. This bud then is the promise of next year’s leaf,
and it is always found at the base of the leaf stem, as shown at _A_.
There is no such bud at the base of the leaflet on the compound leaf, as
shown at _B_. If then we find no bud at _B_, we must look farther down
until we discover it at _C_. This furnishes the test and we know that our
specimen is a compound leaf.

[Illustration: FIG. 97. Method of distinguishing Compound and Simple
Leaves]

This class of leaf is very common, as our horse-chestnuts, buckeyes,
hickories, and walnuts all have compound leaves.

The horse-chestnut is not a native American tree, but was imported from
Europe, where it is a great favorite. The leaflets number five or seven,
always an odd number, and they radiate from one central point, the odd
one in the center usually being the largest.

[Illustration: FIG. 98. The Horse-Chestnut]

It is very interesting to watch these leaves as they come out of the
sticky buds in the spring. They unfold and grow very rapidly and soon the
tree brings forth large pyramidal clusters of beautiful flowers.

The large, neat brown nuts which come later in the season do not seem to
be very useful, yet they are so solid and shiny that every boy delights
to gather them.

An American tree closely resembling the horse-chestnut is the buckeye.
The leaflets on the buckeye leaf number five, sometimes seven, and
radiate like the horse-chestnut from a common center.

[Illustration: FIG. 99.

Buckeye

Hickory]

This tree is well known through the Ohio valley, where it is very common,
Ohio being called the Buckeye State. The nuts are not edible, but the
wood is very tough and strong and is used extensively in making farm
implements.

Compare the leaf of the buckeye and the hickory shown in Fig. 99. Both
leaves are compound, and each has five leaflets, but they are quite
different, because the hickory leaflets are arranged on opposite sides of
the leaf-stalk instead of radiating from one point.

There are several varieties of hickory, including the shagbark, or
shellbark, the pignut, and pecan.

The name _shagbark hickory_ is taken from the peculiar appearance of the
bark, which hangs in loose pieces nearly a foot long and gives the tree a
very shaggy effect. _Shellbark_ is another common name for this tree.

The nut which this tree bears is hard and thick, but the kernel is very
sweet, and is considered by some superior to all other hickory nuts.

The _pignut hickory_ is so called because the nuts in some parts of the
country are used to feed the pigs. It is also called _broom hickory_.
The nuts are small and become bitter after having lain awhile. The wood,
however, like all the hickories, is valuable, being hard and tough. There
is a difference between strength and toughness. Oak is strong, but not
tough. Hickory is both hard and tough. A tough wood is one which will
stand bending without breaking. A wood which will bend easily but is not
strong cannot be called tough. It must be both strong and elastic, and
hickory has both of these qualities.

=41. The Pecan.= We usually think of the pecan nut as different from
the hickory, yet they belong to the same family. The pecan hickory is a
southern tree which delights in the warm climate south of the Ohio River,
and in Texas is found as a grand forest giant one hundred and fifty feet
high, producing an enormous crop of the sweetest and most delicately
flavored nuts. The leaf has nine leaflets and occasionally as many as
fifteen.

[Illustration: FIG. 100.

Black Walnut

Butternut]

=42. The Black Walnut and Butternut.= Perhaps no two trees are so
difficult for the city boy or girl to distinguish as the butternut and
black walnut. Both have compound leaves, the number of leaflets varying
from nine to seventeen for the butternut and from fifteen to twenty-three
for the black walnut. A leaf having fifteen leaflets, then, might belong
to either tree if there were no other way to distinguish them. The teeth
on the black-walnut leaflet are larger and sharper than on the butternut,
and the fuzzy stem is lacking. The green nuts, too, are different, the
black walnuts being just about the size and shape of green lemons, the
butternuts longer and thinner; but the unmistakable feature is the odor.
Having once smelled the crushed leaves of a butternut and a black walnut,
a person will thereafter need no other test.

The use of black-walnut lumber for making furniture was at one time very
common. The great supply of this valuable wood has been exhausted and
other woods have become fashionable. It is still used for gunstocks, for
which purpose nothing seems better suited.

Butternut is a light-colored wood, but takes a good polish and is
occasionally used in cabinet work.

=43. The Locusts.= The locust family is a large one; its members all bear
compound leaves, and their fruit is in the form of beans instead of nuts.

The common yellow or black locust is famous for its hard, durable wood,
its delicate light green leaves, and its white flowers.

The tree is not very beautiful when the leaves are off, but its wood is
so valuable that its beauty is not considered. The wood is yellow and
becomes very hard after it has dried.

The honey locust is another common member of this family.

[Illustration: FIG. 101.

The Locust

The Honey Locust]

=44. The Honey Locust.= Its leaves are much finer and somewhat resemble
ferns. It may always be known by the dangerous sharp-pointed thorns which
grow all over the tree. These thorns are unusually large, sometimes
being found in great bunches and as long as six inches. Its fruit is a
long, thin, brownish pod, which is sweet and contains little light brown
beans. The wood is strong and durable.

=45. The Ash.= Every boy who has owned a rowboat knows that oars are made
of wood from the ash. This is because the oar must be elastic as well as
strong, and the timber of the ash tree supplies these two qualities. The
ash is one of our tallest and noblest forest trees. It is rather slim
in build, with beautiful clean shiny green foliage. The members of this
group seem to be fond of colors, and we have the white ash, red ash,
green ash, blue ash, and black ash.

There are slight differences in the leaves and seeds, but, as in other
trees, when we have once seen an ash seed we can always thereafter
distinguish an ash tree. Fig. 102 shows the seed of the red ash. It is a
winged seed, with the seed part inclosed by the wing.

[Illustration: FIG. 102. Red Ash]

The compound leaf of the white ash has from five to seven leaflets and
the black ash has from seven to eleven. The wood is hard, tough, and
elastic, has a handsome grain, and is used for many purposes besides
making oars, such as furniture, carriages, and those farm implements
which require strength. The Indian could find no better wood for his bow,
and even Cupid is said to have first made his arrows of ash.




CHAPTER IX

BROAD-LEAVED TREES HAVING SIMPLE LEAVES


=46. The Elm.= The elm is the well-known shade tree of New England. Its
tall, graceful form is familiar to every visitor and native of that
section of country, where it is found along every roadway and in every
city.

[Illustration: FIG. 103. The American Elm]

Who can think of New England without its noble elms? It would indeed
be a different country. The elm may be said to represent New England
character,—dignified, sturdy, graceful, and refined. Being tall, with
foliage well up, the general shape of the tree gives the desired shade,
yet does not obstruct the view; while its stately dignity gives an air
of comfort and repose to the grounds, which it seems to protect from the
elements.

Its wood is valuable for certain kinds of work, being tough and strong,
but it is not suitable for cabinetwork, as it is difficult to polish. It
is used considerably for wheel hubs and in cooperage.

[Illustration: FIG. 104. Leaf of American Elm]

Observe the edge of the elm leaf carefully. The teeth not only curve
gracefully toward the extreme tip of the leaf, but they are themselves
also toothed,—a form known as double-toothed. The leaf is coarse and
rough to the touch, in marked contrast to the birch family, whose leaves
it slightly resembles. There are several elms famous in the history of
our country. At Cambridge is the old elm under which George Washington
drew his sword and took command of the American Army on July 3, 1775;
there are several other “Washington Elms” in different parts of the
country, while New Haven is known as the City of Elms. William Penn made
his famous treaty with the Indians under the branches of a magnificent
elm, which remained standing until it was over two hundred years old,
when it was finally blown down. The spot has been marked by a marble
column.

The tree is called the _American_, or _white_, _elm_, and we have several
other varieties growing wild, including the well-known _slippery elm_, so
called because the inner bark is slippery and edible.

=47. The Birches.= If the black birch with its sweet, aromatic bark is
not known to a boy, the white, or canoe, birch is sure to be. It seems to
be the fate of this beautiful tree to be disfigured by every wandering
youth who has strength enough to tear off a strip of its paper-like bark.

[Illustration: FIG. 105. Leaf of Black Birch]

The leaf of the black, or sugar, birch may be distinguished from the elm
by its smoothness and thinness. Its base is slightly heartshaped, the
edge is double-toothed, the tender bark on the twigs is sweet to the
taste, and the leaves grow in pairs.

[Illustration: FIG. 106. Birches bordering a Canal]

=48. White Birch.= The famous white, paper, or canoe birch has a leaf
somewhat broader than the black variety, but without the heartshaped
base. Its bark is its peculiar feature and cannot be mistaken. It comes
off in layers and possesses a resinous quality which makes it waterproof,
a fact fully appreciated by the Indians, who constructed their canoes of
it. The wood is hard and tough.

=49. Gray Birch.= A smaller tree, known as the _gray birch_, also has
white bark, but it is not as perfect as that of the canoe birch, does not
peel in layers, and has triangular black spots on the trunk beneath every
limb.

[Illustration: FIG. 107. Leaf of Gray Birch]

It loves barren, rocky places, abandoned farms, etc., and is sometimes
called _old field birch_. It has a fine, delicate foliage, which is not
duplicated in the forest. Each leaf swings from a long, slender stem,
and every passing breeze gives it a trembling effect, like the aspen.
The leaf form is very odd,—a broad, flat base, and then a long, graceful
curve out to a fine point, the whole edge being finely double-toothed.

=50. The Beech.= The difference in the leaf forms of the birch and beech
is very marked. Both have toothed edges, but in the beech the spaces
between the teeth are so remarkably shallow that one has to search for
them.

[Illustration: FIG. 108. A Remarkable Growth of Beeches in Greater New
York]

There has been a common belief for generations that the beech is proof
against lightning, and recent experiments prove that beech wood offers
considerably greater resistance to the electric current than oak, poplar,
or willow; so our ancestors were partly right. The wood is hard, strong,
and tough, and will take a high polish.

=51. Hornbeam.= Closely related to the beeches are two little trees which
have delicate birchlike foliage and wood of great hardness,—the hornbeam,
or blue beech, and the hop hornbeam, or ironwood.

[Illustration: FIG. 109. Leaf of American Beech]

[Illustration: FIG. 110. Ironwood, or Hop Hornbeam]

The leaves of these two varieties are quite similar, that of the ironwood
being somewhat the larger.

The name _hop hornbeam_ is derived from the fruit, which resembles the
hop, and the name _ironwood_ from the great strength and hardness of the
wood.

=52. Buttonball.= No list of trees would be complete which did not
include those three forest giants, buttonball, tulip, and sweet gum.
The names _buttonwood_, _buttonball_, _sycamore_, and _plane tree_, as
the same tree is called in different parts of the country, all apply
to that fine American tree which sheds its bark as well as its leaves,
leaving a ghostly monarch of tree life, which produces an enormous crop
of buttonballs so well known to country boys and girls. The leaves are
in proportion to the size of the tree, often measuring a foot in length,
and being frequently covered on the under side with a white down called
_fungus_.

[Illustration: FIG. 111. Leaf of Buttonwood]

The wood of the sycamore, as it is incorrectly called, is valuable for
cabinetwork, having a beautiful grain and taking a high polish. It is,
however, difficult to work, and has a tendency to warp.

=53. Sweet Gum.= The sweet-gum tree also produces a crop of balls, or
seed pods, but although the same size as the buttonballs, they need never
be confused, as the gum balls are covered with somewhat sharp points,
while the buttonballs are comparatively smooth.

The leaves of the sweet gum, or _liquid amber_—so called from the
amber-colored gum the tree gives out—remind one of the starfish, being
five-fingered and decidedly different from any leaf in the forest. The
tree grows to a height of one hundred and fifty feet, and its wood is a
handsome brown color with fine and intricate markings. It warps badly,
but is valued for wood turning on account of its softness and even grain.

[Illustration: FIG. 112. Sweet Gum, or Liquid Amber]

=54. Tulip.= The lumber furnished by the tulip tree, commonly called
_whitewood_, is less liable to warp than gum wood, and is somewhat
harder. Just why it should be called whitewood is not clear, as it is
much darker than white pine and of a greenish-yellow color. The leaf of
the tulip tree is very peculiar, having only four points, without any
small teeth, and with an outline so odd that one often wonders if nature
did not use a pair of scissors in cutting it out.

Each leaf stands out aggressively on a long stem. The glory of the
tree—which gives it its name—is the mass of tulip-shaped flowers it
bears in the spring. They are large and brilliant, yellowish-green in
color, with dashes of red, and develop a narrow, light-brown cone, which
remains on the tree all winter. The tree thrives best south of the Ohio
valley, where it is frequently found from five to seven feet in diameter.
The Indians formerly made their dugout canoes from its trunk, and in some
sections it is still called _canoe wood_.

[Illustration: FIG. 113. Tulip, or Whitewood]

=55. Basswood, or Linden.= A very valuable group of trees for both shade
and timber are the basswoods, or lindens. There are several varieties,
the European linden thriving here as readily as our native varieties.
These trees may always be distinguished by the leaves, which are
heartshaped and lopsided, i.e. one side from the middle line being always
larger than the other, as if two leaves of different sizes had been
joined along the center.

This is a very common feature among certain classes of trees, such as
the elms. Another remarkable feature is the seed, or bract, shown in the
sketch (Fig. 115).

The tree is sugar-loaf in shape, gives a dense shade, and has sweet
flowers so fragrant that it is sometimes called the _bee tree_, because
the bees swarm all over it in the summer time. Its timber is valuable,
being free from knots and of such an even grain that it is much sought
after for some kinds of carving.

[Illustration: FIG. 114. American Linden, or Basswood, showing the
Sugar-Loaf Form of the Tree]

The familiar cigar-store Indian is usually carved from basswood.

Among the broad-leaved trees there are still several familiar families,
all loved by some of us for some reason.

The willow is always a striking tree, not only because of its weeping or
drooping appearance, but also because we usually associate it with water.

What is more common in the country than a stream hidden by the willows
which crowd its bank and dip down into the clear water!

Then, too, we watch it for the first sign of spring, and friends in
different states often vie with each other to discover the first _pussy
willow_, the name given to the soft, downy buds which appear often before
the snow has melted.

[Illustration: FIG. 115. Leaf and Bract of Linden]

The willow is dear to boys, because on the green twigs in spring the
bark can be separated from the wood and a whistle or simple flute
manufactured.

The wood of the willow is not very valuable, being used chiefly by pulp
makers, but it grows where no other trees can exist, being found nearly
all over the world, and creeping nearer to the north pole than any other
broad-leaved tree except the birch. It has over one hundred and fifty
varieties, which vary from small shrubs up to trees a hundred feet high.
Its soft and gentle beauty is sufficient excuse for its existence.

[Illustration: FIG. 116. A Weeping Willow]

=56. The Poplars.= In the poplars we have a group of trees similar to the
willows in some ways but very different in others. The wood is weak and
of little use except for fuel and paper pulp, but there the likeness
ends.

To this family belongs the quaking aspen, whose leaves are continually
trembling,—in fact, the whole family is a restless one, the constant
motion being due to the shape of the long stems, which are flattened.

The people of Scotland have a superstition that it was of aspen wood
that our Saviour’s cross was made, and that the tree shivers in constant
remembrance of that fact.

[Illustration: FIG. 117.

Aspen

Aspen Poplar, or Large-Toothed Aspen]

Beside the quaking aspen is the large-toothed aspen, the Lombardy poplar,
and the cottonwood.

The Lombardy is the spirelike tree which seems to reach toward the
clouds, and its tall, narrow form is familiar in many sections of our
country, although the tree was originally imported from Europe.

Cottonwood and balm of Gilead are two well-known members of this family.
Cottonwood is best known in the West, where it often constitutes the
chief and only growth along the water courses, and balm of Gilead is
known as one of our common city shade trees. This latter tree, often
called the balsam, is really an important tree of the great northwestern
country, being found plentifully in the Klondike, and often forming in
that far northern country great forests thousands of square miles in
extent. It is used as a shade tree because it stands the smoke and gas of
the city where many other trees pine away and die.

[Illustration: FIG. 118. Cottonwood, or Carolina Poplar]

=57. Sassafras.= We find many freaks in the tree world, and nature seems
to have tried to see how odd she really could be; for instance, on the
sassafras tree we find three distinct kinds of leaves, having one, two,
and three divisions.

[Illustration: FIG. 119. Sassafras]

This tree, which in the northern states is usually quite small, grows
under favorable conditions to a height of fifty feet. It is noted for
the pleasant taste of its leaves, twigs, and roots, which are used
considerably in flavoring medicines.

=58. Mulberry.= Another tree noted for the peculiar shape of its leaves
is the mulberry. There are three common kinds, named, from the color of
their berries, _red_, _black_, and _white_.

It is the white mulberry whose leaves are the food of the silkworm. The
leaves of this tree are quite regular, but those of the red and black
vary apparently as they please. No two leaves seem to be alike either in
size or shape, and they are very soft and downy.

[Illustration: FIG. 120. Red Mulberry, showing Variation in Leaf Form]




CHAPTER X

THE EVERGREENS


[Illustration: FIG. 121. White Pines at Westbury, Long Island]

The evergreen trees, so called because their needle-like leaves remain
on the tree all winter, are fully as interesting as the broad-leaved
trees. Without them our landscapes in winter would be much more barren
and bleak, and their shade is very pleasant in summer. A pine forest
with its fresh balsam air and needle-covered floor is a sight to be long
remembered.

[Illustration: FIG. 122. A View showing how Evergreens help to enrich the
Landscape. Arbor Vitæ Hedges]

The wood of the evergreens is usually classed among the soft timbers,
although the yellow pine is far from soft.

=59. White Pine.= The king among evergreens is usually admitted to be the
white pine. Its soft, bluish-green foliage, the widespreading branches,
and the value of its fine, even-grained wood give it the first rank.

[Illustration: FIG. 123. Needles and Cone of White Pine]

Pines have needle-shaped leaves which grow in groups of two, three,
or five. White pine needles grow in groups of five and are from three
to four inches long. The cones which contain the seeds are about five
inches long. The tree grows tall and straight, and formerly grew in great
forests covering thousands of square miles; the wood is so free from
pitch and is so easily worked with tools that these great forests have
been almost annihilated by the lumberman’s ax, and white-pine timber has
become quite expensive. It takes many years for a tree to grow large
enough for timber, and unless we are more economical in the future white
pine will be only a memory.

=60. Georgia Pine.= The southern yellow pine, or Georgia pine, is a very
different tree from its northern cousin, the white pine, furnishing us
with a resinous yellow wood, much harder than white pine, and a beautiful
and valuable material for the interiors of buildings. It is also very
durable and is frequently used for exposed places, such as the decks of
ships.

The needles are very long, measuring a foot and sometimes fifteen inches
in length.

The seed cones are from six to ten inches long, and the scales have
little prickles on their ends. The tree grows throughout the southern
states from Virginia to Texas, and the cutting of its timber is a
valuable industry of the South.

=61. Yellow Pine.= The common yellow pine must not be confounded with
the long-leaved Georgia pine. The former has needles growing three in a
bunch, and the latter short needles three or four inches long, growing
two and sometimes three in a group. The cone of the common yellow pine is
also very much smaller, being only two inches long.

Its wood is very valuable and is used for flooring, ceiling, and interior
finishing.

[Illustration: FIG. 124. Hemlock]

There are several less important kinds of pine, such as the northern and
Jersey scrub pines, and the red, or Norway pine.

Spruce, hemlock, and fir are well-known members of the evergreen family.

=62. Hemlock= is a graceful, dainty-looking tree, with drooping branches
and little needles not over half an inch long. It is a northern tree
except along the Allegheny Mountains, where it extends as far south as
Alabama. The seed cones are the tiniest brown things to be found among
the common trees. They are no longer than the hemlock needles.

[Illustration: FIG. 125. The Influence of Hemlock on the Winter
Landscape. Snow Scene]

The wood is not as valuable as pine, splitting very easily and being
afflicted with _shakes_, a defect caused by the annual layers or rings
breaking away from each other when the trees are swayed by the winter
storms. The bark is valuable, however, as it is rich in tannin.

=63. Spruce.= The tall, dark, cone-shaped evergreen trees which ornament
so many of our old farm dooryards are usually some species of spruce. The
spruce is sometimes mistaken for the balsam fir, which is so commonly
used for Christmas trees, but they are so different that they need never
be confused.

There are several varieties of spruce, including the red, black, white,
and Norway, but they all bear a family resemblance.

Looking at the end of a spruce twig, it will be found that the needles
completely surround it. This is not true of the fir. Then the spruce
needles are sharp at the tip, while the fir needles are blunt.

This family is distinctly a northern group, being found as far north as
Hudson Bay and forming dense forests, particularly on mountain sides.
One may often see on the steep slopes the dividing line between the
broad-leaved trees and the evergreens, the dark spruces extending clear
up to the summit.

The red spruce is found as far south as Tennessee, but in that latitude
it grows only at high elevations. It has cones about one and a half
inches long, and its wood is light, soft, and close-grained. The wood is
used for the sounding-boards of musical instruments and for the frames of
buildings.

The black spruce is the northern brother of the red, and is really a
Canadian tree which occasionally reaches down into the United States.
It reaches the Mackenzie River on the north and covers large areas in
Manitoba.

It takes its name from the dark, somber color of its foliage, which seems
almost black against the snowy hillsides.

The cones are the same size as on the red spruce, but they persist in
remaining on the tree for several years. The wood is soft and weak and is
used for sounding-boards, pulp, and light framing for houses.

[Illustration: FIG. 126. Black Spruce]

The white spruce is similar to the other two, but lighter in color, cones
a trifle longer and softer, and needles more slender. It is a northern
tree; its wood is very white and clear-grained, and is used for finishing
the interior of houses.

Norway spruce, as its name implies, is an importation from Europe, where
its majestic height graces the mountains from the Alps to Norway and
Sweden. It grows very tall, sometimes a hundred and fifty feet, and
flourishes as well in America as in Europe. The cones are four or five
inches long. Its wood is known in Europe as _deal_.

=64. Cypress.= In the swamps of our southern states, from Maryland south
along the Gulf of Mexico, are found great dark forests of the bald
cypress.

[Illustration: FIG. 127. Cypress]

They grow directly out of the water and are famous for a peculiar
formation of the roots called _cypress knees_,—lumpy growths which come
up out of the water as if they were in search of air. The cypress is
a tall, spirelike tree, which has the most delicate, feathery needles
imaginable. They drop off in the fall, so that the tree is sometimes
called _deciduous cypress_. The cones are roundish and about an inch
long. The timber furnished by this tree is very handsome in grain and
valuable for many parts of buildings, especially inside finishing.

=65. The Balsam Fir=, or our famous Christmas tree, is noted for its
great healing qualities. In fact, sanitaria for invalids, especially
consumptives, are frequently built in the midst of great fir forests,
that the sufferers may inhale the pure mountain air, laden as it is with
the odors of the balsam fir. The needles are often used to fill pillows,
which are said to soothe tired and worn-out people to sleep.

We are all familiar with the sweet, _woodsy_ smell of the Christmas tree.
No other tree can take its place. It brings visions of the country, of
the woods and fields and flowers, and it will always be dear to us.

The balsam fir can always be distinguished from the spruce by the fact
that the needles only come out at the sides of the twig instead of from
all directions, as in the spruce, and its end is blunt, whereas that of
the spruce is sharply pointed.

[Illustration: FIG. 128. Balsam Fir]

The bark of the tree is gray and has tiny blisters which contain the
balsam, _Canada balsam_ it is usually called, well known for its healing
qualities.

The cones are from two to four inches long, stand upright on the
branches, and the wood is not very valuable.

=66. The Cedars.= No list of evergreen trees would be complete without
the cedars. In this group is the well-known hedge tree, arbor vitæ,
sometimes erroneously called _white cedar_. It is famous for its
flattened, bright green, scaly leaves, with their strong, pungent odor.

This tree is usually so trimmed that we have very little knowledge as to
its real shape and height if allowed to grow naturally; but it is said to
reach a height of fifty feet under favorable conditions.

[Illustration: FIG. 129. Arbor Vitæ]

=67. White Cedar.= The real white cedar has a more delicate leaf and is
fond of cool swamps.

It has a conical shape and is much larger than the arbor vitæ, reaching
sometimes ninety feet. The wood is very valuable, being soft but durable,
and is used for shingles, posts, and boats. It has the property of
enduring the changes such as posts or other structural members are
obliged to withstand in contact with the soil, and ranks next to yellow
locust in this particular.

=68. Red Cedar= is the tree which supplies our lead pencils. It is
remarkable for its straight, even grain, and the ease with which it
can be worked. This is the familiar tree of our roadside, where the
birds who feast on the cedar berries have stood on the fence rails and
unconsciously planted rows of cedars for future generations by dropping
the seeds on the ground.

[Illustration: FIG. 130. Red Cedar growing along Roadside from Seed
dropped by Birds]

The red cedar seems to grow where other trees cannot exist, but like
other trees responds to good treatment and reaches its best development
in the balmy and luxuriant South.

It is found from Maine to Florida and from the Atlantic to the Pacific.
In the North it rarely grows over twenty feet high, and is of compact
growth, but in Florida it reaches eighty feet.

The leaves are remarkable in that there are two shapes, the sharp or
awl-shaped, and the scale-shaped, growing upon the same branch.

The wood is valuable for many purposes and has been used so extensively
that it is becoming scarce.

Florida has furnished the world with red cedar for lead pencils for
years, and it is said that during the Civil War, when the whole southern
coast was blockaded, the European manufacturers were obliged to scour the
world to find a substitute for the Florida cedar.




CHAPTER XI

THE BIG TREES


[Illustration: FIG. 131. Big Trees scarred by Fire at the Base. Redwood
Meadow, California]

Each section of country has its own peculiar trees, and those described
have been mainly representative of the eastern states; but no list of
American trees would be complete without the “big trees,” as they are
commonly called, of California. The annual rings of these giants show
them to be from two thousand to four thousand years old.

[Illustration: FIG. 132. Big Trees, “General Grant” and “General
Sherman,” Calaveras County, California]

[Illustration: FIG. 133. “General Grant,” a Big Tree, Mariposa Grove,
California]

It is hard to realize this great age. It means that for centuries and
centuries before the white men came these kings of the forests looked
down on generations and generations of Indian tribes. They may even have
seen the coming of the first Indians. What wonderful tales they might
relate if they could only talk!

[Illustration: FIG. 134. Redwood Logs in Humboldt County, California]

On that fateful day over four hundred years ago, when the three little
caravels of Columbus sighted the West Indies, these hoary old trees were
twenty-five hundred years old. They should be sacred to every American,
and not one should ever be cut down for lumber.

There are two distinct kinds of big trees, the redwood and the so-called
“big trees,” which are the largest trees in the world. They both belong
to the cone-bearing (coniferous) group, and the needles are only three
quarters of an inch long and the little cones an inch.

The wood is reddish, as the name implies, not unlike red cedar, but is
softer and is used for many purposes on the Pacific coast.

The big trees are now carefully guarded by the government. One grove
alone which contains seven hundred of these fine trees, called the
Mariposa Grove, has been reserved as a national park, and is watched
carefully to keep out forest fires, etc.

Many of the best known of these trees are given names. One is called
“Uncle Tom’s Cabin,” because of a peculiar opening at the base.

The most famous perhaps is the “Grizzly Giant.” This one is ninety-three
feet in circumference at the ground, and its first branch is two hundred
feet above the earth and eight feet in diameter. It is considered the
largest tree in the world.

[Illustration: FIG. 135. Redwood Logs blasted apart for Easier Handling
(a very wasteful method)]

We can get some idea of what these figures represent when we know that it
takes five men three weeks to cut one down, and that the cost of felling
one of these monsters is five hundred dollars.

A stump of one of these trees is so large that dances have been held on
it, and on one very large one a ballroom has been built for this special
purpose.

As one Californian has said, “The redwood forests are apparently
imperishable, except through the ax, as the trees are rarely injured by
fire. The redwood is the only lumber that can take the place of the white
pine, answer as a satisfactory substitute for mahogany and black walnut,
displace oak for railroad ties, cypress and cedar for shingles, and
surpass all other woods for durability when in contact with the earth or
when exposed to moisture.”

[Illustration: FIG. 136. Immense Flock of Sheep being herded illegally
in a United States Government Forest Reservation. (They kill the young
seedling trees)]




INDEX


  Annual rings, 59

  Ash, 92

  Aspen, 107


  Band saw, 58

  Basswood, 103

  Beech, 99

  Bench, care of, 3

  Bench hook, 15

  Bevel, 10

  Big Trees of California, 123

  Birches, 96

  Bit, auger, 27
    auger, details of, 28
    center, 27
    countersink, 29
    gimlet, 29

  Black walnut, 89

  Brace, common forms of, 26
    and bit, 27

  Bract of linden, 105

  Buckeye, 87

  Butternut, 89

  Buttonwood, 101


  Cap iron, 17

  Cedar, 120

  Chisel, cutting angle of, 23
    firmer, 24
    framing, 24
    methods of using, 24
    sharpening, 25

  Clamp iron of plane, 18

  Compound leaves, 85

  Cottonwood, or Carolina poplar, 108

  Cutting tools, 11

  Cypress, 118


  Dovetail. _See_ Joint

  Drawing board, 45, 62


  Elm, American, 94

  Evergreens, 111


  Felling trees, 52

  Fir, balsam, 118

  Framing square, 8


  Gang saw, 55

  Glue, use of, 39

  Grain of wood, 59

  Groups of tools, 4

  Gum, sweet, or liquid amber, 101


  Hammer, claw, 31
    use of, 32

  Hand screw, use of, 40

  Hemlock, 115

  Hickory, 87

  Honey locust, 91

  Hornbeam, 100

  Horse-chestnut, 86


  Ironwood, 100


  Joint, definition of, 39
    dovetail, 47
    end lap, 44
    middle lap, 38
    miter, 41

  Joint edge, 37

  Jointers, 21


  Laying out work, 38

  Linden, or basswood, 103

  Locust, 91

  Log boom, 55

  Log jam, 53

  Logs, redwood, 126

  Lumbering and milling, 51


  Mallet, 33

  Maple, ash-leaved, 82
    Japan, 84
    Norway, 78
    red, 80
    silver, 78
    striped, 81
    sugar, 76
    sycamore, 80

  Maple keys, 82

  Marking gauge, 8

  Mechanical drawing, 43
    of end lap joint, 44
    of cylinder, 44

  Medullary rays, 59

  Miscellaneous tools, 31

  Mortise, cutting a, 34

  Mulberry, 109


  Nail set or punch, 32

  Nails, cut and wire, 41
    method of using cut, 41
    withdrawing, 32


  Oak, black and black-jack, 69
    chestnut, 74
    live, 75
    mossy-cup, 68
    pin, 72
    post, 67
    red, 70
    scarlet, 71
    white, 66

  Oilstone, use of, 25


  Pecan, 89

  Perspective drawing and constructive drawing compared, 43

  Pine, Georgia, 114
    white, 113
    yellow, 114

  Plan of work, 4

  Plane, 17
    adjustments on, 18
    block, 21
    block, method of using, 22
    jack, 19
    smooth, 20
    wooden, 22

  Plane iron in action, 17

  Poplars, 106


  River driving, 53

  Rule, use of, 6


  Sandpaper, use of, 34

  Sassafras, 108

  Saw, back, 15
    circular, 57
    method of holding, 14
    turning, 16

  Saw tapers, 14

  Saw teeth, shape of, 13

  Saw tooth action, 11

  Saw tooth set, 13

  Sawmill, 55

  Saws, 11

  Scale drawing, 48

  Screw-driver, 33

  Screws, varieties of, and methods of using, 42

  Sections of red oak, 70

  Set screw of plane iron, 17

  Shake in wood, 60

  Shrinkage, 61

  Spokeshave, 29

  Spruce, 116

  Stock, squaring up, 36

  Sycamore, 101


  T square, use of, 45

  Timber and lumber, 58

  Trees, broad-leaved, or deciduous, 65

  Triangles, use of, 45

  Try-square, use of, 6

  Tulip, or whitewood, 102


  Warping, 61

  Weather checks, 60

  Willow, 106

  Working face, 37



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